List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
Imperial seal of the emperor
First to reign Hongwu Emperor 23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398
Details
Style	His Imperial Majesty (陛下, 皇上, 萬歲)
First monarch	Hongwu Emperor (Ming dynasty) Hongguang Emperor (Southern Ming)
Last monarch	Chongzhen Emperor (Ming dynasty) Yongli Emperor (Southern Ming)
Formation	1368 (Ming dynasty) 1644 (Southern Ming)
Abolition	1644 (Ming dynasty) 1662 (Southern Ming)
Residence	Ming Palace, Nanjing Forbidden City, Beijing Varies according to the Southern Ming regimes
Appointer	Hereditary

The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming dynasty succeeded the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Its founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and drove the Mongols out of China. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new dynasty and declared himself its first emperor.

A total of sixteen emperors ruled over China proper for 276 years. During their reign, China experienced a long period of economic growth and political stability.

In the late 1620s, a peasant uprising erupted in northern China. The weakened Ming government was unable to suppress it, and in 1644, the rebels even captured Beijing, leading to the Chongzhen Emperor's suicide. To defeat the rebels, the government troops in the north invited the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies of the Qing dynasty to come to the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China in the same year.

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over the south of the country. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.

The Ming emperors resided in the Forbidden City, a 72-hectare complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.

Succession

Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567) wearing a robe adorned with twelve dragons. The sun and moon drawn on the shoulders form the character ming ("bright"), the name of the dynasty. National Palace Museum, Taipei.

Dragon, detail of a robe worn by the Wanli Emperor found in his tomb at the Ding Mausoleum. The dragon motif (with five claws), symbolizing imperial power, was exclusively reserved for the emperor and his family.

The emperors inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture; according to the Hongwu Emperor's decision, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir if he had none, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor. The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.

Powers

In theory, the emperor held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges. As the dynasty progressed, the subsequent emperors lacked the decisiveness of their founder and were subject to traditional limitations. The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country. Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters. Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates. Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.

Titles and names

The emperor's personal name was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. The emperor was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply 上 Shang). After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name, usually consisting of nineteen characters for Ming emperors, but for example, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name, used for ceremonies in the ancestral temple of the dynasty.

Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynasty name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".

The emperor's era name or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time. All Ming emperors, except for Emperor Yingzong, only declared one during their reign. As a result, they are commonly referred to by the name of their era.

Household, family and court

Painting from the Ming era depicting the Forbidden City. The current buildings of the palace complex are the result of restorations during the Qing dynasty, which did not significantly alter the appearance of the Ming constructions.

The emperor's palace, known as the "Forbidden City", was situated in the heart of the imperial city. It covered a rectangular area of approximately 1 kilometer from North to South and 760 meters from East to West, and was protected by wide walls and moats filled with water. The main entrance, the Gate of Accepting Heavenly Mandate (Chengtianmen), was located to the south and opened onto a vast inner courtyard. The North side was flanked by the Meridian Gate (Wumen). Behind this gate was the actual imperial residence, which was dominated by the Hall of Revering Heaven (Fengtian dian) where important receptions and ceremonies took place. Other smaller halls were used as reception areas and for conducting rituals. A final inner enclosure separated the emperor's private residence, the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqing gong), from the rest of the palace. This area also housed the residences of the empress, concubines, and eunuchs, and was surrounded by gardens.

The emperor, known as the "Son of Heaven", spent the majority of his life within the walls of the Forbidden City. He was viewed as the intermediary between humans and the heavens, and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors. Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of ambassadors, and metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him. However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries. When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.

The Forbidden City was home to a large population, including the reigning empress (as there could only be one), who resided in a vast hall and participated in several major rituals. Alongside her, the emperor had numerous concubines who held lower ranks. The heir to the throne was typically the son of the empress, and if she did not have a son, then the son of a concubine would inherit. The heir was trained for his future role from a young age, while his brothers were given important titles and often sent to distant fiefs to prevent them from posing a threat to the emperor's power. In exchange, they were supported by the state treasury. However, by the end of the dynasty, the imperial family had grown so large that it became a significant expense for the government. The daily service of the emperor and his empress and concubines was carried out by eunuchs, who could develop close relationships with the imperial family and wield considerable political power. Under weaker emperors, eunuchs were able to accumulate wealth and influence, causing scandal. Some, such as Wei Zhongxian and Liu Jin, even became de facto rulers of the empire.

Imperial tombs

The Chang Mausoleum of the Yongle Emperor in the Ming tombs complex near Beijing. The Yongle Emperor, who seized the throne from his nephew, commissioned the construction of the Changling Mausoleum as a means of legitimizing his rule and solidifying Beijing as the capital of the Ming dynasty.

The death of an emperor was a significant event in both the political and ritual life of the empire. The Ming emperors followed the tradition of constructing grand funerary complexes for themselves and their families. The Hongwu Emperor was buried at the Xiao Mausoleum near Nanjing, while the Jianwen Emperor did not receive an official burial. After the capital was relocated under the Yongle Emperor, the remaining emperors were buried at the mountainous site of the Ming tombs complex, located northwest of Beijing (except for the Jingtai Emperor, who was considered a usurper and buried elsewhere). The layout of the site, which was carefully planned from the beginning, mirrored that of ancient imperial funerary complexes. The main entrance was situated between two large hills and marked by the Great Red Gate (Da Hong Men). Further in, the Shengong Shengde Stele Pavilion, inside which a stele was located, served as the entrance to the "Spirit Way" (Shendao). This road was lined by statues of guardian animals and officials and was closed by the Gate of Dragon and Phoenix (Longfeng Men). Beyond this point, the funerary park proper began, containing the tombs of the thirteen emperors who were buried there. The Chang Mausoleum of the Yongle Emperor occupy a central position. The tomb was located under a large tumulus, with a sacred complex consisting of three successive courtyards arranged to the south. The tomb of the Wanli Emperor, Ding Mausoleum, was excavated and contained five large funerary chambers. The most significant of these chambers, located to the north, held the burials of the emperor and his two empresses. Approximately 3,000 objects were unearthed during the excavation, which were originally arranged in about twenty lacquer chests of exceptional craftsmanship. One of the most magnificent items discovered was an empress crown adorned with over 5,000 pearls.

List of emperors

Further information: List of emperors of the Ming dynasty by length of reign

Below is a complete list of the emperors of the Ming dynasty, including their personal, temple, posthumous, and era names. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor, who ruled for 48 years (r. 1572–1620); the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.

Ming dynasty

Personal name	Portrait	Lifespan	Reign	Era name	Posthumous name	Temple name
Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋		21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398	23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398	Hongwu 洪武 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399 (22 January 1403)	Emperor Gao 高皇帝	Taizu 太祖
Zhu Yunwen 朱允炆		5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402	30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402	Jianwen 建文 6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402	Emperor Hui 惠皇帝	–
Zhu Di 朱棣		2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424	17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424	Yongle 永樂 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425	Emperor Wen 文皇帝	Taizong, 太宗, since 1538 Chengzu, 成祖
Zhu Gaochi 朱高熾		16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425	12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425	Hongxi 洪熙 20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426	Emperor Zhao 昭皇帝	Renzong 仁宗
Zhu Zhanji 朱瞻基		16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435	29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435	Xuande 宣德 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436	Emperor Zhang 章皇帝	Xuanzong 宣宗
Zhu Qizhen 朱祁鎮		29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464	31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449	Zhengtong 正統 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450	Emperor Rui 睿皇帝	Yingzong 英宗
			11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464	Tianshun 天順 11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465
Zhu Qiyu 朱祁鈺		21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457	22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457	Jingtai 景泰 14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457	Emperor Jing 景皇帝	Daizong 代宗
Zhu Jianshen 朱見深		9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487	23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487	Chenghua 成化 27 January 1465 – 13 January 1488	Emperor Chun 純皇帝	Xianzong 憲宗
Zhu Youcheng 朱祐樘		30 July 1470 – 8 June 1505	9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505	Hongzhi 弘治 14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506	Emperor Jing 敬皇帝	Xiaozong 孝宗
Zhu Houzhao 朱厚照		26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521	8 June 1505 – 20 April 1521	Zhengde]] 正德 27 January 1522 – 27 January 1522	Emperor Yi 毅皇帝	Wuzong 武宗
Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜		16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567	27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567	Jiajing 嘉靖 28 January 1522 – 8 February 1567	Emperor Su 肅皇帝	Shizong 世宗
Zhu Zaiji 朱載坖		4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572	23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572	Longqing 隆慶 9 February 1567 – 1 February 1573	Emperor Zhuang 莊皇帝	Muzong 穆宗
Zhu Yijun 朱翊鈞		4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620	5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620	Wanli 萬曆 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620	Emperor Xian 顯皇帝	Shenzong 神宗
Zhu Changluo 朱常洛		28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620	28 August – 26 September 1620	Taichang 泰昌 28 August 1620 – 21 January 1621	Emperor Zhen 貞皇帝	Guangzong 光宗
Zhu Youjiao 朱由校		23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627	26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627	Tianqi 天啟 22 January 1621 – 4 February 1628	Emperor Zhe 悊皇帝	Xizong 熹宗
Zhu Youjian 朱由檢		6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644	2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644	Chongzhen 崇禎 5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644	Emperor Zhuanglie Min 莊烈愍皇帝	Sizong 思宗

Southern Ming

Title before accession to the throne	Personal name	Lifespan	Era name	Title Reign	Temple name
Prince of Fu 福王	Zhu Yousong 朱由崧	5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646	Hongguang 弘光 28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645	Emperor 19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645	Anzong 安宗
Prince of Lu (Luh) 潞王	Zhu Changfang 朱常淓	1608 – 23 May 1646	–	Regent 1 July – 6 July 1645	–
Prince of Tang 唐王	Zhu Yujian 朱聿鍵	25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646	Longwu 隆武 18 August 1645 – 4 February 1647	Emperor 18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646	Shaozong 紹宗
Prince of Lu (Lou) 魯王	Zhu Yihai 朱以海	6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662	Jianguo Lu 監國魯 16 February 1646 – 1653	Regent 7 September 1645 – 1653	–
Prince of Tang 唐王	Zhu Yuyue 朱聿鐭	1605 – 20 January 1647	Shaowu 紹武	Emperor 11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647	–
Prince of Gui 桂王	Zhu Youlang 朱由榔	1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662	Yongli 永曆 5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662	Emperor 24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662	Zhaozong 昭宗

Posthumously recognized individuals

This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Ming emperors posthumously.

Personal name (lifespan)	Posthumous name	Temple name	Year recognized	Notes
Zhu Bailiu 朱百六 (?–?)	Emperor Xuan 玄皇帝	Dezu 德祖	1368	Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor
Zhu Sijiu 朱四九 (?–?)	Emperor Heng 恆皇帝	Yizu 懿祖		Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor
Zhu Chuyi 朱初一 (?–?)	Emperor Yu 裕皇帝	Xizu 熙祖		Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor
Zhu Shizhen 朱世珍 (1281–1344)	Emperor Chun 淳皇帝	Renzu 仁祖		Father of the Hongwu Emperor
Zhu Biao 朱標 (10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392)	Emperor Xiaokang 孝康皇帝	Xingzong 興宗	1399 and 1644	Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Hongwu Emperor. Father of the Jianwen Emperor. Posthumously recognized as emperor by the Jianwen Emperor. However, in 1402, the Yongle Emperor, after overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor, abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status. It was not until two centuries later, in 1644, that Zhu Biao once again promoted to the status of emperor.
Zhu Youyuan 朱祐杬 (22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519)	Emperor Xian 獻皇帝	Ruizong 睿宗	1538	Father of the Jiajing Emperor
Zhu Changxun 朱常洵 (22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641)	Emperor Gong 恭皇帝 and Emperor Xiao 孝皇帝	Gongzong 恭宗	1644	Father of the Hongguang Emperor
Zhu Yuwen 朱宇溫 (1490–1560)	Emperor Hui 惠皇帝	–	1645	Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
Zhu Zhouyong 朱宙栐 (1538–1564)	Emperor Shun 順皇帝	–		Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
Zhu Shuohuang 朱碩熿 (? – 24 January 1630)	Emperor Duan 端皇帝	–		Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
Zhu Qisheng 朱器墭 (?–1629)	Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝	–		Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
Zhu Cilang 朱慈烺 (26 February 1629 – June 1644)	Emperor Dao 悼皇帝	–	1646	Crown Prince who never acceded to the throne. Son of the Chongzhen Emperor.
Zhu Changying 朱常瀛 (25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645)	Emperor Duan 端皇帝	Lizong 禮宗		Father of the Yongli Emperor

Timeline

Legend:

• Orange denotes Ming emperors
• Cyan denotes Southern Ming emperors

See also

• Ming emperors family tree
• List of vassal prince peerages of the Ming dynasty
• Dynasties of China
• List of Chinese monarchs
• Southern Ming topics

References

Works cited

• Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming].
• Fan, C. Simon (2016). Culture, Institution, and Development in China: The economics of national character (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9780367374648.
• Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve". The Journal of Asian Studies. 44 (4). doi:10.2307/2056469. JSTOR 2056469. S2CID 162510092.
• Brook, Timothy (2003). Čtvero ročních období dynastie Ming: Čína v období 1368–1644 (in Czech). Translated by Liščák, Vladimír (1st ed.). Praha: Vyšehrad. ISBN 80-7021-583-6.
• Huang, Ray (1997). China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
• Ch’ien, Mu (1982). Traditional government in imperial China: a critical analysis. Translated by Hsüeh, Chün-tu; Totten, George O. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-254-X.
• Hucker, Charles O (1966). The censorial system of Ming China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0289-6.
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• Baud-Berthier, Gilles; et al. (2003). La vie des Chinois au temps des Ming (L'Histoire au quotidien) (in French). Paris: Larousse. ISBN 978-2035053763.
• Elisseeff, Danielle (2010). Histoire de l'art: la Chine : des Song (960) à la fin de l'Empire (1912) (in French). Paris: RMN. ISBN 978-2-7118-5520-9.
• Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03801-1.
• Tsai, Shih-Shan Henry (2002). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. Seattle, Wash.; Chesham: University of Washington Press; Combined Academic. ISBN 0295981245.
• Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1998). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243335.
• Moule, Arthur Christopher (1957). The rulers of China, 221 B.C.- A.D. 1949; chronological tables. New York: F. A. Praeger.
• Atwell, William (1988). "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644". In Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 (1 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 585–640. ISBN 0521243327.
• Twitchett, Denis C; Mote, Frederick W., eds. (1988). The Cambridge History of China. Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243327.
• Taylor, Romeyn (1975). Basic Annals of Ming T'ai-tsu. Chinese Material and Research Aids Service Center, Inc. ASIN B076VFSKS1.
• Bo, Yang (2010). Bo Yang quanji: Lishi juan 柏杨全集:历史卷 [The Complete Works of Bo Yang: History Volume] (in Chinese). Vol. 16. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House. ISBN 9787020080014.
• Qian, Haiyue (2016). Nan Ming Shi 南明史 [History of the Southern Ming] (in Chinese). Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 9787101044294.

Further reading

• Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor : Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.

External links

• Theobald, Ulrich. "Chinese History - Ming Dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644) emperors and rulers". Chinaknowledge - a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 January 2010.