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Fallingwater

Coordinates: 39°54′22″N 79°28′5″W / 39.90611°N 79.46806°W / 39.90611; -79.46806
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Fallingwater
Fallingwater in Stewart Township, Pennsylvania
Map
Interactive map showing Fallingwater's location
LocationStewart Township,
Fayette County, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Nearest cityUniontown
Coordinates39°54′22″N 79°28′5″W / 39.90611°N 79.46806°W / 39.90611; -79.46806
Built1936–1939
ArchitectFrank Lloyd Wright
Architectural style(s)Modern architecture
Visitorsabout 160,000 (in 2010s)
Governing bodyWestern Pennsylvania Conservancy
CriteriaCultural: (ii)
Designated2019 (43rd session)
Part ofThe 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright
Reference no.1496-005
RegionEurope and North America
DesignatedJuly 23, 1974[1]
Reference no.74001781[1]
DesignatedMay 23, 1966[2]
DesignatedMay 15, 1994[3]

Fallingwater is a house museum in the Mill Run section of Stewart Township, Pennsylvania, United States, designed by the architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Situated in the Laurel Highlands of southwestern Pennsylvania, it is built partly over a waterfall on the Bear Run stream. The house was developed as a weekend retreat for Liliane and Edgar J. Kaufmann, the owner of Kaufmann's Department Store in Pittsburgh. The original house was completed in 1937, and a guest annex was completed in 1939. The Kaufmanns' son, Edgar Kaufmann Jr., deeded the house in 1963 to the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy (WPC). The house was renovated in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The WPC continues to operate Fallingwater as a tourist attraction and also maintains a 5,000-acre (2,000 ha) site surrounding the house.

The three-story residence sits above a waterfall and contains multiple outdoor terraces, which are cantilevered from a chimney. Wright built Fallingwater out of stone from nearby quarries, in addition to reinforced concrete, steel, and plate glass. The first story contains the main entrance, the living room (which is cantilevered above the waterfall), two outdoor terraces, and the kitchen. There are three bedrooms and additional terraces on the upper stories. Wright designed most of the house's built-in furniture, including many pieces of black-walnut furnishings. On the hillside above the main house is a four-bay carport, servants' quarters, and a guest house.

The house has received architectural commentary over the years, and it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark. Fallingwater was listed as a World Heritage Site in 2019 as part of a group of eight listings known as "The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright".

Site

[edit]

Fallingwater is situated in Stewart Township in the Laurel Highlands of southwest Pennsylvania, United States,[4][5] about 72 miles (116 km) southeast of Pittsburgh.[6][7] The house is located near Pennsylvania Route 381 (PA 381),[8][9] between the communities of Ohiopyle and Mill Run in Fayette County, Pennsylvania.[9] It is variously cited as being either in Mill Run itself or on Bear Run, the stream that runs below it.[10] Nearby are the Bear Run Natural Area to the north, as well as Ohiopyle State Park to the south.[11][12] The nearest city is Uniontown, Pennsylvania, to the west.[8] Fallingwater is one of four buildings in southwestern Pennsylvania designed by the architect Frank Lloyd Wright. The others are Kentuck Knob, about 7 miles (11 km) to the southwest,[13][14] as well as Duncan House[14][15] and Lindholm House at Polymath Park in Acme, Pennsylvania.[16]

The main house sits above a set of waterfalls on Bear Run.[9] There are two waterfalls on the grounds: an upper falls about 20 feet (6.1 m) high, where the house is situated, and a lower falls about 10 feet (3.0 m) high, downstream from the house.[9] Where it runs beneath the house, Bear Run is 1,298 feet (396 m) above sea level.[17][18] The stream sometimes freezes during the winter and dries up during the summer.[19] There is a layer of buff and gray sandstone under the site, which is part of the Pottsville Formation. Prior to Fallingwater's construction, several sandstone boulders were scattered across the grounds, particularly on the north side of Bear Run.[20]

In the 1890s, a freemasonry group from Pittsburgh developed a country club on a plot of land that includes the Fallingwater site. By 1909, this clubhouse had been acquired by another group of masons who turned it into the Syria Country Club.[21] A map from 1913 shows that the grounds included the clubhouse, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Bear Run station, and 13 other buildings (none of which are extant). The clubhouse was about 1,100 feet (340 m) southeast of Fallingwater's site, and the train station was further downhill. The 13 other structures included a cottage, which occupied the site of Fallingwater's guest wing.[22]

Use as house

[edit]

Fallingwater was built for Edgar J. Kaufmann, a Pittsburgh businessman and the president of Kaufmann's Department Store, and his wife Liliane Kaufmann.[21] By 1916, Edgar Kaufmann had established a summer retreat for his employees at Bear Run; the employees eventually bought the 1,598.7-acre (647.0 ha) site in 1926. The Kaufmanns built a simple summer cabin on the grounds in 1922, which was nicknamed "Hangover" because it sat atop a cliff. The cabin, which was expanded in 1931, originally had no electricity, plumbing, or heating.[23] The Kaufmanns lived in La Tourelle, a French Norman estate in Fox Chapel designed in 1923 by Pittsburgh architect Benno Janssen.[24]

Kaufmann's Department Store employees stopped using the summer retreat in the 1930s.[25][26] The Kaufmann family bought the site in July 1933, expanding their holdings to 1,914 acres (775 ha).[26] Edgar and Liliane became familiar with Wright's work through their only child, Edgar Kaufmann Jr..[27][a] The younger Edgar Kaufmann had studied in Europe under the artist Victor Hammer from 1930 to 1933.[28][29] After returning to the United States, in mid-1934, Edgar Jr. read the architect Frank Lloyd Wright's 1932 autography and traveled to Wright's Taliesin studio in Wisconsin in late September.[30][31] Within three weeks, Edgar Jr. began an apprenticeship at the Taliesin Fellowship, a communal architecture program established by Wright and his wife, Olgivanna.[32] It was during a visit with their son at Taliesin in November 1934 that Edgar and Liliane Kaufmann first met Wright.[32][33]

Planning

[edit]

Wright commission and site surveys

[edit]

At his son's urging, Edgar Kaufmann spoke with Wright about the possibility of designing several structures, including a planetarium, a building for Kaufmann's Department Store, and later a country house at Bear Run.[32][33][34] Fallingwater was one of three major buildings that Frank Lloyd Wright designed in the 1930s; the other two were the Johnson Wax Building in Racine, Wisconsin, and Herbert Jacobs's first house in Madison, Wisconsin.[35] When Wright was hired as Fallingwater's architect in late 1934, he was 67 years old, and his contemporaries did not hold his designs in high esteem.[11][31] Furthermore, Wright had designed only two buildings in the previous six years.[31][36]

Fallingwater's facade as seen from one of its terraces
Fallingwater's facade includes sandstone, reinforced concrete, metal, and glass.[11][37]

The Kaufmanns wanted Wright to design a building that was set further back from PA 381, which had seen an increasing amount of traffic over the years. In late December 1934, Wright visited Bear Run and asked for a survey of the area around the waterfall.[38] Subsequently, Wright's team temporarily relocated to Chandler, Arizona, for the winter so they could draw up models of the house and site.[38][39] An engineering map of the site's boulders, trees, and topography was completed and forwarded to Wright on March 9, 1935.[38] At that point, Wright's fellows had concentrated nearly all their efforts on the design of Kaufmann's country lodge. They created models of Kaufmann's proposed buildings, which were exhibited at New York City's Rockefeller Center in April 1935. Kaufmann and Wright met regularly for several months afterward.[40]

Preliminary plans

[edit]

The Kaufmanns asked Wright to include a large living–dining space in their country house. They also wanted the house to include at least three bedrooms, a dressing room, and a guest and servant wing.[38][41] Kaufmann specified that he wanted to pay between $20,000 and $30,000 for the house's construction.[42][43] Wright's apprentices Edgar Tafel and Robert Mosher were the most heavily involved in the building's design,[44][45] while his employees Mendel Glickman and William Wesley Peters were the structural engineers.[44][46] Wright started working on plans for Kaufmann's Pittsburgh office first, postponing his sketches for Kaufmann's country home.[42] When Kaufmann visited Milwaukee on September 22, 1935, he was eager to review plans for his house.[42][47] After Kaufmann called to notify Wright that he would be visiting, Wright drew up the plans in two hours.[47][45] Contrary to common claims that Wright had ignored the design during the nine preceding months, he had already devised the plans mentally but had refused to sketch then out in physical form.[42][43][48]

Wright designed a cantilevered structure that included all the rooms that Kaufmann wanted.[41][49] The house was to be placed on Bear Run's northern bank, oriented so that every room would receive natural light at some point throughout the day. It also included terraces that resembled the rock ledges on the property.[49] Kaufmann had expected that the house would be downstream from Bear Run's waterfalls, allowing the Kaufmann family to see the cascades.[50] However, instead Wright designed the home above the waterfall;[51][52] as he explained to Edgar Kaufmann: "I want you to live with the waterfall, not to look at it."[45][53] Kaufmann was allegedly initially very upset with this change,[41] but the family ultimately came to accept the design as it was.[36] Wright also suggested covering the exteriors with gold leaf;[54][55] sources disagree on whether Wright had made his suggestion jokingly[36] or whether he had really wanted the house to be gilded.[56] In either case, Kaufmann hired a gold-leaf contractor, who rejected the idea,[36] and Wright decided to use a shade of ocher after picking up a dried rhododendron leaf.[56] Wright sent preliminary plans to Kaufmann for approval on October 15, 1935, after which Wright visited the site again.[57][58] In December 1935, an old rock quarry was reopened to the west of the site to provide stone for the house.[57][58]

Final plans

[edit]
View of Fallingwater from across Bear Run

Wright's team had created detailed drawings by January 1936;[59][60] the final plans were largely unchanged from the initial sketches.[60][61] The next month, Wright's team sent the plans to Kaufmann for review, and workers began building a sample wall for the house.[62] Kaufmann asked engineers in Pittsburgh to review the blueprints, as the cantilevered design was highly experimental.[60][57] The engineers created two reports: one about the site's geology and the other that recommended against constructing a building on the site.[63] Upon receiving the reports, Wright ordered that the reports be locked in the house's cornerstone[57][64] (they were instead sealed in one of the walls).[63][64]

Wright seldom spent time at the site, returning only once every four to six weeks;[65] instead, he appointed Mosher as his on-site representative.[57][66] The house's construction was behind schedule by May 1936, and plans were revised later that month.[46] Wright hired Walter J. Hall, a contractor from northern Pennsylvania who at the time was working on Lynn Hall, to work on the house.[46][67] During a visit to the site shortly afterward, Mosher inquired where the main level of the house would be located; at the time, there were four boulders on Bear Run's northern bank.[65][68] Wright sent Mosher to the top of one boulder, told him that the answer was beneath his feet, and left.[65]

Construction

[edit]

During the house's development, Edgar Kaufmann wrote that he constantly thought about the house, "which has become part of me and a part of my life".[36] Edgar Jr. was heavily involved with the project and oversaw correspondence between his father and Wright.[69] Work was carried out by local laborers.[66][70] The project was characterized by conflicts between Wright, Kaufmann, and Hall,[67][57] as Wright prioritized the house's esthetics over any structural concerns.[71] Due to Hall's careless attitude and clumsiness, Mosher ended up supervising most of the work.[66] By June 1936, workers had completed the access bridge across Bear Run, as well as the footers for three of the house's "bolsters", or piers.[72] Despite delays in delivering wood from Algoma, Wisconsin, workers had excavated the basement by that July.[66]

Concrete pouring

[edit]

Workers began pouring concrete formwork for the first-floor terrace in August 1936,[66] and masonry work reached the second story that month.[73] The steel contractor Metzger-Richardson, which was hired to examine the plans for the terrace, drew up plans to strengthen the concrete with extra rebar.[57][74] Wright rejected the idea of increasing the amount of rebar, since he believed the extra steel would cause the slab to collapse,[75][76] but extra rebar was added anyway.[74][75] He also dismissed the idea of constructing additional supports in Bear Run's streambed.[76] When Wright heard about the increased rebar, he told Mosher to return to Taliesin.[73][77] Wright wrote angrily to Kaufmann: "I have put so much more into this house than you or any other client has a right to expect, that if I don't have your confidence—to hell with the whole thing".[7][75][78] Despite Kaufmann's expressions of confidence in Wright's work, the extra steel remained in place; had the steel been removed the terraces may have collapsed.[7][71][75]

The contractors made a mistake in pouring the concrete, as they did not incline the formwork slightly to account for settling and deflection.[77][79][80] Once the formwork was removed, the cantilever developed a noticeable sag,[77][75] sinking about 1.75 inches (4.4 cm).[75] When Mosher contacted Glickman about the sag, the latter reportedly realized that he had forgotten to add enough steel reinforcement to counteract the compressive forces of the concrete beams.[75] Upon learning of the unapproved steel addition, Wright recalled Mosher.[77] With Kaufmann's approval, the consulting engineers installed a wall under the main supporting beam for the west terrace. When Wright discovered it on a site visit, he had Mosher discreetly remove the top course of stones. When Kaufmann later confessed to what had been done, Wright showed him what Mosher had done and pointed out that the cantilever had held up for the past month under test loads without the wall's support.[81]

After the formwork was removed from the second-story terrace, the parapet cracked at two locations, prompting Metzger-Richardson to suggest that columns be installed in the streambed to support the terrace. Wright rejected the suggestion, as did Kaufmann.[82] Despite subsequent repairs to the parapet, the cracks periodically reappeared.[79]

Naming, completion, and cost

[edit]

The "Fallingwater" name originated with Wright.[53][83] He first used the name in late 1937 while writing an article on his career, which appeared in the January 1938 Architectural Forum. Until that time it had been referred to on Wright's drawings and in correspondence as the E. J. Kaufmann Residence or E. J. Kaufmann House, the names used in publications covering the house's construction. The new name immediately became popular, and was amplified by a 1938 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art and in Henry Luce's popular magazines Time and Life. The Kaufmanns, who reportedly disliked the name, did not use it.[83] The main house was completed in 1938, and the guest house was completed the following year.[84]

Fallingwater exceeded its budget significantly.[85] The final cost for the home and guest house was $155,000 (equivalent to about $2.7 million in 2023),[86][87][88] which included $75,000 for the house; $22,000 for finishings and furnishings; and $50,000 for the guest house, garage, and servants' quarters.[89] The cost overruns extended to smaller details like the bridge leading to the front door, which was budget at $2,500 but cost $30,000.[85] The Kaufmanns paid Wright $8,000,[19][89] one-third of his usual commission, which was 15% the construction cost.[56] The total cost was nearly four times Kaufmann's original $40,000 budget for the house, which in turn was ten times the average cost of a four-bedroom house in Pennsylvania at the time.[9] From 1938 through 1941, more than $22,000 was spent on additional details and for changes in the hardware and lighting.[89]

Kaufmann usage

[edit]

Fallingwater remained the Kaufmann family's weekend home for 26 years. The family traveled to the estate by taking the train to the Bear Run station, where a chauffeur drove them to the house.[25] Liliane enjoyed swimming in the nude and collecting modern art, especially the works of Diego Rivera, who was a guest.[90] Liliane originally did not like her bedroom's modern design but, upon some urging from her son, came to appreciate it.[91]

[Wright] understood that people were creatures of nature, hence an architecture which conformed to nature would conform to what was basic in people. For example, although all of Falling Water [sic] is opened by broad bands of windows, people inside are sheltered as in a deep cave, secure in the sense of the hill behind them.

— Edgar Kaufmann Jr.[92]

Fallingwater, particularly its terraces, had shown signs of deterioration ever since its construction.[6] When the Kaufmanns moved in, the house was leaking in 50 places, although the Kaufmanns did not express their concerns about the leaks to Wright.[11] A more pressing matter was the structural problems of Fallingwater's terraces. Concerned about the terraces' condition, Kaufmann hired a surveyor in 1941 to survey the terraces and record the severity of their sagging. The house's terraces were surveyed annually for the next fourteen years.[93][94] Fallingwater's problems were so numerous that Edgar Kaufmann referred to it as "Rising Mildew".[5] Also in 1941, part of the Kaufmanns' Bear Run estate caught fire, although the house itself was undamaged.[95] The estate's dairy barn burned down in 1945, but again the main house avoided damage.[96]

During the Kaufmanns' time at Fallingwater, they hosted guests such as Albert Einstein.[97] The Kaufmanns hired Elsie Henderson as the house's chef in 1947; she worked there until the family gave up the house sixteen years later.[98] Liliane died in 1952 after overdosing on drugs while at the house.[99] Edgar Kaufmann, who subsequently remarried, did not outlive Liliane by much longer: He died in 1955 and was buried on the grounds.[99] Edgar Jr. inherited Fallingwater after his father's death, continuing to use it as a weekend retreat until 1963.[87][59] The younger Edgar discontinued Fallingwater's annual structural surveys, since he thought the terraces had stopped sagging.[100] Edgar Kaufmann Jr. also agreed to donate the house to the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy (WPC) at some point in the future. By then, the sagging terraces had caused the window frames to warp, and the family hired engineers to add supports to the terraces, repair the roof, and rebuild the staircase between the living room and Bear Run.[59]

Use as museum

[edit]

1960s and 1970s

[edit]

In accordance with his father's wishes, and to preserve Fallingwater, Edgar Kaufmann Jr. announced in September 1963 that he would donate the home and approximately 1,500 acres (610 ha) of land to the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy.[101] Edgar Jr. said at the time that he had been motivated to donate the house because "My personal pleasure has to be subordinated to the future", particularly at a time when many of Wright's houses were being demolished or altered beyond recognition.[101] The conservancy took over the house on October 29 with a speech by Pennsylvania governor William Scranton.[102] The ownership transfer included $500,000 for the house's maintenance, as well as five annual payments of $30,000 for educational programs.[101][102]

Fallingwater was subsequently turned into a house museum.[103][79] In accordance with Kaufmann's request, the WPC attempted to recreate the house's original condition as much as possible. This included setting the dining tables and beds, opening the closets, and placing toilet paper and soap in the bathrooms to give the appearance that the Kaufmanns were still living there.[11] Visitors were allowed into most of the house's rooms.[11][104] Edgar Jr. remained involved with the WPC and Fallingwater until his death in 1989.[105][104] In subsequent years, the original 1,500-acre bequest was expanded to 5,000 acres (2,000 ha).[99]

1980s and 1990s

[edit]

Edgar Jr.'s partner, the architect and designer Paul Mayén, designed a visitor center for the house, which was completed in 1981.[106] Lynda Waggoner was appointed as the house's curator in 1985,[107] later being promoted as director.[105] During the 1980s and 1990s, the WPC spent tens of thousands of dollars to upgrade security, restore the wood, and replace the window panes.[103] Conservators also consulted the house's original contractors while carrying out assorted restoration work.[108]

The cantilevered terraces at Fallingwater were sagging significantly by the late 1980s.

By the late 1980s, acid rain and repeated thawing and freezing had caused deterioration.[109][110] Even though all but a dozen leaks had been repaired through the years, laborers were employed throughout the year specifically to clear rain and snow from the terraces and roof.[103] In addition, the ends of Fallingwater's cantilevered terraces had sagged by 7 inches (180 mm),[7][111] causing the terraces to tilt by about two degrees.[94] The site was permanently humid throughout the year because the house was placed over the waterfall.[112] In 1992, the WPC hired John Seekircher to fix the glass hatch in the living room, which had not been opened in two decades.[113] Waggoner also planned to repaint the house, which was complicated by the fact that workers could not allow paint chips to fall into Bear Run due to strict environmental regulations.[103]

1990s and 2000s renovations

[edit]

Temporary girders

[edit]

An engineering student, John Paul Huguley, first identified issues with the terraces in the mid-1990s,[53][78] upon which he notified the WPC of his findings.[114] The organization commissioned a study of the site's structural integrity in 1995, which found that the cantilevers were insufficiently reinforced and that the concrete and its steel reinforcement were both close to failing.[115] The engineer Robert Silman was hired to assess the conditions of the cantilevers and design a permanent fix.[94][116][117] Silman's company first added sensors and used radar to detect structural issues, and they confirmed that the cracks in the terraces were growing.[75][118] The WPC's CEO, Larry Schweiger, said the terraces were not in danger of immediate collapse but that they were still structurally unsound.[117] Waggoner recalled that the terraces were so brittle that visitors could actually feel them bounce.[119]

Workers installed temporary girders in 1997[94][116] at a cost of $140,000.[120] The girders did not carry any weight; instead, they were intended to help relieve stresses on the cantilevers.[121] The WPC cut out a section of the house's floor,[94][122] and the living room's sofa was also removed to accommodate the girders.[100][123] A glass light opening was installed on the floor, enabling visitors to observe the damaged beams.[124] Several stone plugs were carved out of Bear Run's streambed to create holes for the girders' footings; the plugs were to be placed back into the streambed once the girders had been removed.[120] The stream was rerouted to allow crews to access the terraces,[123] and two of the terraces were closed off while these repairs were made.[79]

Restoration

[edit]

The engineering firm Wank Adams Slavin Associates was hired to design a wider-ranging restoration of the house.[125] Silman devised plans to repair the structure permanently by post-tensioning the slabs, which involved pulling high-strength steel cables through the beams.[122][126] The idea of jacking up the house was deemed infeasible because it would have exacerbated cracks in the structure.[121] In early 1999, a panel of engineers and architects endorsed Silman's proposal.[125][126] The same year, the WPC began raising $6 million for permanent structural repairs;[79][94][121] the conservancy had already spent $440,000 to date.[117] The WPC also discussed the structural issues with engineers, historians, and architects from around the world, including Wright's grandson Eric.[78] The work was postponed by two years while the WPC raised money.[7][124] The Getty Foundation provided the WPC with a $70,000 grant to investigate the structural issues.[79] Fallingwater also received approximately $900,000 for structural repairs in mid-1999 through the federal Save America's Treasures program.[70][127] Governor Tom Ridge subsequently provided $3.5 million for the house's renovation in 2000,[128][129] while private donors provided another $7.2 million.[130]

Work began in late 2001, at which point the cost of restoration was estimated at $11.5 million.[7][124][131] The living-room floors were removed for repairs, and contractors poured concrete blocks on both ends of each beam.[114][118] Cables were threaded through these blocks,[76][114] then tightened using hydraulic jacks over a three-day period.[132] The post-tensioning was not intended to straighten out the terraces, as that would have broken the windows and twisted the steel,[76][133] but rather to prevent the terraces from sagging further.[53][134] The outer end of the first-floor terrace was raised by approximately 0.5 inches (13 mm).[132][135] The post-tensioning process cost about $4 million[7][133] and was completed in six months.[53][114] After the post-tensioning was completed, the terraces largely stopped sagging.[74][110]

The WPC also planned to strengthen one of the upper-level terraces using carbon fiber, rebuilding the staircase from the living room to Bear Run, and repairing water damage.[129][118] Pamela Jerome of Wank Adams Slavin drew up plans for the installation of roof membranes to improve drainage.[136][126] Due to acid rain and emissions from a coal-fired power station nearby, the exterior also had to be repainted.[134] Workers relocated some outbuildings to give Fallingwater a more secluded appearance, and they replaced the visitor center's sewage system.[7][124] Signage, paths, and landscape features were rehabilitated as well.[124][137] The house was connected to a municipal water system for the first time; prior to this, Fallingwater had been receiving water from trucks.[137] Visitation increased as a result of the renovations,[134] which were largely completed in 2003.[132][134] In addition, Fallingwater received $100,000 for landscaping in late 2003.[138] The next year, the entrance roadways were reconfigured,[139] and the new sewage system was finished.[140]

Mid-2000s to present

[edit]

After the renovation was completed in 2005,[141] the WPC began removing invasive species from the Fallingwater grounds that year.[142][143] Additionally, PPG Industries donated glass panes to the WPC in 2010, allowing the conservancy to replace 319 windows at the house.[144] The same year, the WPC hired the Canadian firm Patkau Architects to design six cottages on the grounds, which would host educational programs for Fallingwater.[145][146] The WPC hired a firm from Peekskill, New York, to help restore the windows.[147] In the mid-2010s, one of Fallingwater's volunteer landscapers created a pottery terrace in one of the house's planters.[148] One of the statues on the grounds was toppled and damaged during a rainstorm in 2017, and some trees were damaged as well.[149]

Waggoner announced in 2017 that she would step down as the house museum's director,[150] and Justin W. Gunther was appointed to replace her.[151] The house was temporarily closed between March and June 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Pennsylvania. When it reopened, only the outdoor spaces were initially open for self-guided tours.[152][153] That September, the Pennsylvania government gave Fallingwater nearly $240,000 to offset financial losses from the pandemic.[153] In addition, a photovoltaic power array was installed at Fallingwater in 2022 to help power the main house and guest wing.[154][155]

Architecture

[edit]

Fallingwater has been described as an example of Wright's organic architecture.[156][157][158] Though Fallingwater is sometimes described as a Modern–styled building, The Wall Street Journal wrote that the design was "a kind of streamlined, handmade, organic architecture" not emulated by other architects.[157] The building also includes Japanese architectural details because of Wright's love of Japanese architecture. Contemporary Japanese architect Tadao Ando has said of the house:[159]

I think Wright learned the most important aspect of architecture, the treatment of space, from Japanese architecture. When I visited Fallingwater in Pennsylvania, I found that same sensibility of space. But there was the additional sounds of nature that appealed to me.[159]

In designing the building, Wright had sought to eliminate the distinction between the exterior and interior, using the same materials indoors and outdoors.[9][160] He also intended for breezes to be felt, and for the waterfalls to be heard, throughout the house.[158] Wright, who saw the house as "an extension of a natural cliff",[160] planned to have the house blend into its natural setting.[161] He built Fallingwater out of sandstone from nearby quarries,[162] in addition to reinforced concrete, steel, and plate glass.[11][37] The concrete—a mixture of sand, cement, and gravel from the streambed—deteriorated over the years due to poor adhesion.[163] All the woodwork in the house is made of black walnut from North Carolina.[36][37]

Exterior

[edit]
Bridge leading to the entrance of Fallingwater

The house is three stories high.[17][160] Wright limited his palette to gray for the sandstone, a light-ocher "dead rhododendron" color for the concrete, and red for the steel.[36][164][b] Red was used because Wright believed that the hue was "invincible";[40][165] although the color was originally described as Venetian red, it was changed to Cherokee red in the 1970s.[166] Some of the house's corners have windows that open inward[167] and lack vertical mullions.[37][168] There are also windows with metal casings,[167] which are painted Cherokee red.[11][37] The roof has rolled edges[168] and is covered with beige gravel, blending in with the color of the facade.[55] The northern facade of the house contains masonry walls with setbacks; the wall's design was intended to replicate the textures of the cliff next to it.[169]

The house is accessed by a 28-foot-long (8.5 m) bridge across Bear Run,[68] with reinforced-concrete balustrades.[54] At either end of each balustrade is a planter made of rough stone, which was intended to contrast with the smooth concrete used in the balustrades.[54] There is a rectangular concrete panel at the middle of the bridge deck, with square, inlaid lights at each corner of the panel.[170] Fallingwater's entrance is about 60 feet (18 m) past the bridge,[68] accessed via a driveway with overhead trellises, which doubles as a porte-cochère.[169] The main doorway is recessed from the facade[11][104] and is accessed from the porte-cochère.[169] A small water fountain is located next to the entrance.[11][171] Although the main entrance is just 6 inches (150 mm) higher than the bridge's deck, the driveway was designed to give the impression that visitors were going uphill into the house.[68]

Terraces

[edit]

At Fallingwater, Wright made extensive use of cantilevered terraces,[160][111] which are made of concrete.[17][59] The terraces are supported only at one end; they extend outward from the house's chimney,[59][11] which rises 30 feet (9.1 m) above the first story.[68] At the time of the house's construction, neither cantilevers nor reinforced concrete were commonplace.[168] Wright likened the terraces to tree branches[59] and, as one Associated Press writer described it, "a tray balancing on the fingers of a waiter".[65] All the terraces have parapets with rounded tips, which are covered with a stucco layer measuring 0.25 inches (6.4 mm) thick.[55]

The primary section of the main house, which includes the living room, is cantilevered over the stream on a 75-short-ton (67-long-ton; 68 t) terrace.[53] The cantilevered section is supported at one end by four bolsters, or piers, which sit above a sandstone ledge.[44][76] The piers measure 3 feet (0.91 m) wide from east to west, resting on footings that flare outward from 15 to 36 inches (380 to 910 mm).[172] A 14.5-foot-long (4.4 m) reinforced-concrete beam is cantilevered outward from each bolster, and concrete joists run perpendicularly to the reinforced-concrete beams.[44][135] The underside of the cantilevered section is made of a reinforced-concrete slab.[44][118] The beams and joists form a grid above the slab, which is similar in shape to an inverted coffered ceiling.[118] Above the grid of beams and joists are wooden planks, which are covered by the living room's stone floor tiles.[44] The easternmost beam is thicker than the others because it supports a hatch in the living room's floor.[80] The tiles were not originally waterproofed.[55]

There are terraces leading off the living room's western and eastern walls.[17][75] The southern section of the living room's eastern terrace measures 24 feet (7.3 m) wide, spanning two bays. The western terrace is 13 feet 10 inches (4.22 m) wide, protruding past the kitchen's western wall.[173]

An additional terrace extends off the second floor's southern side, which weighs 50 short tons (45 long tons; 45 t)[53] and extends about 6 feet (1.8 m) further outward than the living room below it.[75][76] The second-floor terrace was originally supported by four mullions along the southern wall of the living room.[7][75][118] As built, the second-floor terrace transferred too much weight onto the cantilevered living room; as such, the living-room cantilever had to be strengthened in the 2000s.[7][100] Canopy cover from the surrounding forest hangs above the terraces.[174]

Interior

[edit]

Fallingwater has been cited as having either three[11] or four bedrooms.[71] The main house has a floor area of 5,330 square feet (495 m2),[14][53] of which 2,445 square feet (227.1 m2) is composed of outdoor terraces.[164][53] The remaining 2,885 square feet (268.0 m2) is indoors.[164] Including the guest wing and terraces, there is about 8,000 square feet (740 m2) of floor area.[162] The walls, chimney, and piers are made of sandstone from the surrounding area.[17] The house's superstructure does not use any steel I-beams, but it does use folded slabs of reinforced concrete for structural support.[37] Steel was used for the windows and doors. The floors have black-walnut millwork as well as sandstone finishes.[17]

Wright designed the hallways with low ceilings to prevent people from loitering there[50] and to create a cave-like atmosphere.[25][37] He also decreased the size of the bedrooms to encourage occupants to go outside.[50] One source described the interiors as "spaces of varying sizes and shapes that seem to flow from one to the other".[175] Wright, who was 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) tall, designed the house based on the assumption that the average person was his height.[56][85] As such, some ceilings are as low as 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m); the highest ceilings are 9 feet (2.7 m).[85]

Like the exteriors, some of the interior design elements are cantilevered, such as furniture, shelves, and the kitchen kettle's arm.[104][162] The spaces are illuminated by indirect lighting, a novelty for residential buildings at the time of Fallingwater's completion.[71] Wright placed the house's toilets very close to the ground, about 10.5 inches (270 mm) above the floor,[7] as he believed that a squatting position was healthier than sitting atop a standard American toilet.[9][11] In addition, he clad the bathroom floors with cork tiles,[25] and he ordered industrial-sized shower heads to make visitors feel like they were under a waterfall.[9][50] Wright concealed the radiators in the house because he did not like their appearance.[37]

First floor

[edit]
The living-room cantilever as seen from the bridge leading to the house. The staircase from the living room to Bear Run is also visible here.

The first story contains the main entrance, the living area (which is cantilevered above the waterfall), and the kitchen.[17][160] The first story has a waxed stone floor, an allusion to the stream flowing below it.[104][37][174] The bolsters divide the house into four bays from west to east,[176] each of which measures 12 feet (3.7 m) wide.[173] The main entrance, within the easternmost bay,[176] leads to a small foyer with stone walls. To the left of the foyer, a doorway leads to one corner of the living room.[177]

The living area, occupying the center two bays,[176] covers 1,800 square feet (170 m2) and also functions as a study and dining area.[37] This makes it one of the first great rooms in an American residence.[178] The fireplace hearth in the living room integrates boulders from the site.[50][160] The living room floor has a boulder that measures about 7 feet (2.1 m) long and protrudes 10 inches (250 mm) from the floor.[59] Wright had wanted to shave the top of the boulder, but Kaufmann insisted that it be kept.[65][59] The ceiling is 7 feet 1 inch (2.16 m) high.[73]

There are windows on three sides of the living area,[25][37] and doors lead to the terraces to the west and east.[17] From the living room's eastern terrace, a stairway, suspended from the ceiling and one wall, ascends to the second floor.[179] The living area also contains a glass hatch,[50][37] which conceals a stairway that descends into Bear Run.[160][180] Despite the elder Edgar Kaufmann's doubts about the hatch, Wright and Edgar Jr. had insisted that this feature was "absolutely necessary from every standpoint".[69][80] The stairs end at a landing just above the stream,[180] and there is a shallow plunge pool at the bottom of the stairway,[c] which is fed by an adjoining reservoir.[72][181]

A doorway connects the living area with the kitchen,[182] which occupies the house's westernmost bay.[176] In the kitchen, there is a 6-foot-tall (1.8 m) niche with a fireplace, which is built into a rock outcropping.[182] Wright installed a 2-foot-diameter (0.61 m), 18-U.S.-gallon (68 L) cast iron kettle in the niche,[36][50] which is suspended from a swinging arm.[182][162] The kettle was inefficient for its purpose: It could not warm water after 12 hours, and the lid was extremely heavy.[50] When Fallingwater was used as a residence, Liliane Kaufmann seldom used the kitchen.[183]

[edit]

Unlike the first story, the other stories are not wheelchair-accessible,[70][104] and there is no space for an elevator within the house.[184] Stone stairways ascend from the first story to the upper-floor bedrooms,[37] which have glass exterior walls that overlook the forest and the falls.[36] The second floor contains two bedrooms.[17] There is a master bedroom 35 feet (11 m) above the waterfall,[167] which is directly above the living room and contains a terrace.[17][176] The master bedroom has movable shelves and bedside lighting that was designed specifically for the house.[37] There is also a dressing room above the kitchen.[17][176] A second bedroom, originally used by guests, is placed above the living room's eastern section.[17][36]

On the third story, there is another bedroom directly above the second-story dressing room, which was used by Edgar Kaufmann Jr..[17][176] The elder Edgar Kaufmann also had a study on the third floor,[104][37] which has a desk with a cutout to allow the windows to swing inward.[104] Liliane used the third-story terrace as a roof garden, planting herbs there.[37] A set of stairs descends to the western second-story terrace. In addition, there is a terrace overlooking the house's center, which is accessed by a gallery that connects with a footbridge over the house's driveway.[17] The house also has a cellar with space for a partial bathroom, storage, and a boiler room.[66]

Grounds

[edit]
Fallingwater path from main house to guest house

A breezeway or open-air walkway connects the main house with a guest and servant wing, which was completed in 1939 and is uphill of the main house.[180] The passageway runs underneath a concrete canopy,[142][185] which is designed to appear like it is floating.[185] This path curves around the site of a large oak tree that was removed in 2001.[142] The walkway includes a small rock pool with a sculpture and a boulder that has water cascading down it.[50][37] The cascade was not part of the original plans for the guest wing; Wright had created it after workers discovered a hidden spring near the boulder.[37]

The guest wing has a separate lounge, bedroom, and bedroom.[36] The guest quarters feature a 6-foot-deep (1.8 m) swimming pool, which is fed by water from a spring.[37] Adjacent to the guest house is a carport with four parking spots,[36][180] which was built at the same time as the guest house and is accessed by a winding driveway.[180] There are three bedrooms and a bathroom above the carport, which are used as staff accommodations.[36] When he designed the guest wing, Wright tried to preserve the natural features of the landscape; for example, he installed a brace along the driveway to support a tree.[25][167]

Approximately 0.25 miles (0.40 km) up the road from the main house is the Fallingwater Barn, which consists of two barns built c. 1870 and in the early 1940s.[186] Also on the grounds are six cottages, which host educational programs. Each of the cottages measures 14 feet (4.3 m) across, with a ceiling 10 feet (3.0 m) high; the interiors of the cottages include living–dining rooms, bathrooms, and bedrooms.[146]

The grounds include a small mausoleum for Edgar and Liliane Kaufmann, which has doors designed by Alberto Giacometti.[11][97] Edgar Jr. was cremated after his death, and his ashes are spread across the grounds.[187] There are also paths throughout the grounds, including a pathway to the waterfall.[36] Wright designed a set of gates for the house's driveway, though these were never installed.[139] A modified pair of gates, designed by George Longenecker, was used at Fallingwater from 1995 to 2005;[139][188] these gates weighed 1,700 pounds (770 kg) and measured 5 by 18 feet (1.5 by 5.5 m) across.[188]

Collection

[edit]

Furnishings

[edit]
The interior of Fallingwater, showing a sitting area with furnishings designed by Wright

Wright designed most of Fallingwater's built-in furniture.[167][17] To prevent the furniture from rotting due to moisture,[11] he incorporated walnut finishes;[17] many of the walls include wooden shelves and trim as well.[11] Among the original furnishings were sheepskin rugs and a sheepskin living-room couch,[160] as well as cantilevered tables.[11] The WPC owns the trademarks to these pieces of furniture.[189] Until the 2000s, the collections were vulnerable to damage because house had no air conditioning, high humidity, no curtains, and high levels of ultraviolet light.[107]

Not all of Wright's furnishings and design preferences were retained. Liliane Kaufmann, unhappy with Wright's original barrel-shaped seats, instead bought a set of three-legged stools, which provided more stability on the irregular stone floors.[167] In addition, Liliane ordered privacy blinds for some of the windows, in spite of Wright's wish that the windows not be obstructed by blinds or other objects.[50] In one room, Edgar Kaufmann installed shelves across one of the windows.[175]

Art

[edit]

Fallingwater's collection includes over 1,000 different artifacts, artworks, and personal possessions.[190] When Fallingwater was finished, Wright gifted the Kaufmanns a set of Japanese woodblock prints, which remain in the house;[70][190] these consist of five Hiroshige prints and one Hokusai print.[190] Except for Wright's woodblock prints, all of Fallingwater's art was selected by the Kaufmanns, who liked collecting art from a variety of cultures.[191] The Kaufmanns also bought Tiffany lamps for the house.[192][193] Many of the family's possessions remain in place.[65]

The main house contains artwork from countries such as Japan, Morocco, and Mexico,[190] as well as religious artworks.[191] The art collection includes pieces such as Diego Rivera's El Sueño and Pablo Picasso's The Smoker and The Artist and his Model.[190] A mural of Madonna and Child, painted in the 18th century by an unknown artist, is placed at the second-floor staircase landing.[191] Liliane's bedroom features a niche with a wooden sculpture of Madonna and Child, which was carved c. 1420,[191][194] while Edgar Kaufmann Sr.'s room includes two busts by Richmond Barthé.[190][194] Edgar Jr.'s study includes a marble sculpture by Jean Arp and an abstract landscape by Lyonel Feininger.[194] A portrait of Edgar Sr. by Victor Hammer hangs in the dining area.[190][194] The bottom of the house's plunge pool contains Jacques Lipchitz's sculpture Mother and Child.[149]

The outbuildings and grounds have other pieces of art. The guesthouse includes woodblock prints and an 1877 landscape painting by José María Velasco Gómez. The guest wing's pool has an abstract sculpture by Peter Voulkos.[194] The grounds also contain three sculptures by Mardonio Magaña,[190] and there are also items such as a Hindu god's head and a Buddha statue.[19][191]

Management

[edit]

The Western Pennsylvania Conservancy maintains Fallingwater, as well as a 5,000-acre (2,000 ha) site surrounding it.[70][162] The WPC hosts tours of the house,[25][50] which typically run between March and November of each year.[195][196] In addition, during December, there are tours on weekends and during the last week of the year.[195] The conservancy's standard tours cover only part of the house and do not allow photography.[25][185] However, photographs are permitted on extended tours that cover the whole house.[25] Every year in late August, the WPC hosts a "twilight tour" in which visitors can go on self-guided tours before attending a picnic and concert at sunset.[197]

The conservancy operates a visitor center with a gift shop, food concessions, and an exhibit of photographs.[50][198] There is also a child-care center on the grounds, since young children are prohibited from touring the house.[12][104][198] Starting in the 1990s, the WPC sold furnishings based on the designs of Fallingwater's furniture;[199] these include chairs, coffee tables, and desks, which are mostly made locally.[200] Additionally, in the 2000s, the WPC sold jewelry with pieces of concrete that were removed from Fallingwater during its restoration.[201] During the Christmas and holiday season, the Fallingwater Museum Store operates a temporary outpost in Downtown Pittsburgh.[202] The WPC operates several educational programs for students and teachers as well.[196] Starting in 2010, the WPC hosted sleepover events for adults at nearby Mill Run, which included private tours of Fallingwater.[203]

By 1990, the house and grounds accommodated 128,000 visitors a year,[167] a number that increased to 135,000 during the middle of that decade.[103] An Associated Press article from 1999 estimated that over 2.7 million people had visited the building ever since it opened to the public.[70] Contract magazine said in 2001 that the house saw 140,000 visitors annually,[124] though other sources from the 2000s put the annual visitor numbers at around 120,000.[15][198] By the 2010s, annual visitation had reached 160,000.[204][205] A 2022 article from The Architect's Newspaper wrote that Fallingwater had seen 5 million visitors ever since its opening.[154] Many of Fallingwater's visitors are fans of Wright's architecture.[178] The museum's visitors over the years have included the actors Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie.[206]

Impact

[edit]

A variety of figures, such as Edgar Jr., the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), the author Ayn Rand, and the publishers Henry Luce and William Randolph Hearst, helped publicize Fallingwater after it was completed.[5] Images of the house in a 1938 Time magazine article, as well as a MoMA exhibition the same year, helped revitalize Wright's career,[119] and he went on to design 200 additional structures.[15] By the 1960s, Fallingwater was one of the world's most-heavily-discussed modern–style structures.[101]

Reception

[edit]

Contemporary

[edit]

When the house was being completed, a writer for The Christian Science Monitor praised the use of contrasting materials, shapes, and tones, saying that they "add so much enchantment to the interior".[160] The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote that the house had attracted notice from architectural critics because of its unusual site above a waterfall.[207] Time, writing in 1938, called Fallingwater Wright's "most beautiful job".[208] In addition, for his design of Fallingwater, Wright received a silver medal from the Pan-American Congress of Architects in 1940.[209] The Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph wrote in 1941 that Fallingwater "was for several years the prime example of modernism".[210]

Retrospective

[edit]

A writer for The Morning Call said in 1990 that the house was "like a gigantic piece of modern sculpture".[9] The next year, The New York Times described Fallingwater as "probably the most widely acclaimed modern residence in America".[211] A writer for The Philadelphia Inquirer observed that the house was unusually cozy for a modern–styled house and that the rooms were not "pretentious, grand or even luxurious".[25] A travel reporter for the Guelph Mercury likened Fallingwater to "a piece of art, where every corner, every detail, captures the imagination".[212] The Wall Street Journal's architecture critic Ada Louise Huxtable wrote that the house "surprises and inspires" and that images of the house's cantilevered terraces were iconic.[213] Edwin Heathcote of the Financial Times described Fallingwater as "a riposte to the familiar, Bauhaus-influenced white functionalism [Wright] referred to as 'cardboard houses'",[214] while a writer for the National Post summarized the house as "Fallingwater assimilates all that Wright had learned, felt and invented".[19]

Several critics have written about the house's relationship with nature. Benjamin Forgey of The Washington Post wrote in 1994 that the house was "another facet or expression of nature and its processes".[104] The Hartford Courant wrote that, despite mixed reviews of Wright's design philosophy, "it's difficult to ignore" the design features of Fallingwater, which "feels organic and inevitable".[56] The Guardian said that Fallingwater "made a dynamic and convincing connection between an uncompromisingly Modern architecture and a wild landscape".[85] Blair Kamin wrote for the Chicago Tribune that the house "appears to be in complete harmony with nature yet it also appears distinctly man-made".[53] David Taylor of The Washington Post said the design "gives fresh meaning to the phrase 'living on the land'",[48] while Americas magazine called the house "a universal icon of the persistent effort to achieve harmony with nature".[215] Another writer for The Globe and Mail said that the house was "abstract, bold, intellectually rigorous, formally unnatural", counterbalancing its surroundings.[216] Smithsonian magazine said that the house "evokes the American desire to exalt nature and dominate it, to claim modernity and reject it".[119]

Smithsonian listed the house among its "Life List of 28 Places to See Before You Die" in 2008.[217][218] Members of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) named Fallingwater the "best all-time work of American architecture" in 1991,[219][220] and the AIA dubbed it the "building of the century" in 2000.[48][213] AIA members also ranked Fallingwater 29th on the society's "America's Favorite Architecture" list in 2007.[221][222] Architectural Record named Fallingwater "the world's most significant building of the 20th century",[141] and The New York Times said that architects considered Fallingwater "one of Wright's supreme creations".[8]

Not all commentary was positive. In 1997, The Baltimore Sun wrote that the house "reeks of the architect's arrogance, from the low ceilings (Wright himself was short) to the uneven floors" and questioned whether the house's high maintenance costs were worth it.[223] William Thorsell wrote for The Globe and Mail that the house "turns its back to the landscape" and that the terrace parapets, the built-in furniture, and the use of rock and dark wood gave the house "a basement feeling".[224] Thorsell felt that the house was in the wrong place because the waterfall, the site's primary attraction, could not readily be seen from the house itself.[224] A writer for the Detroit Free Press, viewed the house largely positively but regarded the house as being impractical for families, with little closet space.[185]

Media

[edit]
Fallingwater as seen from Bear Run downstream of the house. There are two waterfalls in front of the house.
Fallingwater as seen from Bear Run farther downstream

Fallingwater has been depicted in several creative works. For example. it inspired the fictional Vandamm residence at Mount Rushmore in the 1959 Alfred Hitchcock film North by Northwest.[225] The conclusion of Greg Sestero's 2021 film Miracle Valley was shot inside of Fallingwater; according to Sestero, it was the first feature film to ever be shot in the house.[226] The house has been the subject of other works of fiction, including a children's book featuring a talking dog.[227]

Fallingwater is the subject of the 1994 documentary film Fallingwater: A Conversation With Edgar Kaufmann Jr., produced by Kenneth Love and the WPC,[228] and the 2011 documentary Fallingwater: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Masterwork, also produced by Love.[229] The WPC published the book Fallingwater: Frank Lloyd Wright's Romance with Nature in 1996,[230] and the writer Franklin Toker wrote the book Fallingwater Rising about the house's history in 2001.[10][231] To celebrate the house's 75th anniversary, another book about the house's history was published through Rizzoli in 2011.[204][232]

Images of Fallingwater from Bear Run farther downstream have been widely circulated.[216] In addition, blueprints and letters from the house's development have been sold over the years.[233] Virtual tours of Fallingwater have been created as well.[184] One such tour was released in CD format in 1997,[234] and Love created a 3-D virtual tour of the house in the mid-2010s.[184][235]

Landmark designations

[edit]

Fallingwater became a National Historic Landmark in 1966,[204] and the house was also added to the National Register of Historic Places on July 23, 1974.[236] The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission named Fallingwater as "Commonwealth Treasure" in October 2000.[130][237] Fallingwater was deemed eligible for inclusion on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2008,[218] and the United States Department of the Interior nominated Fallingwater to the World Heritage List in 2015, alongside nine other buildings.[205][238] UNESCO ultimately added eight properties, including Fallingwater, to the World Heritage List in July 2019 under the title "The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright".[239][240]

Exhibits and architectural influence

[edit]
Replica of Fallingwater at the Miniature Railroad & Village at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh
Replica of Fallingwater at the Miniature Railroad & Village at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh

MoMA displayed pictures of the house in 1938,[241] which helped draw attention to the house;[130][242] the exhibition was later moved to Carnegie Tech.[243] MoMA hosted other exhibits featuring Fallingwater, including a scale model of the house in 1940,[244] images of the building in 1959,[245] and another model in 2009.[246] New York's Columbia University hosted a symposium on the structure in 1986,[19][247] and Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Art hosted an exhibit featuring the house in 1999.[248] In addition, the Miniature Railroad & Village at Pittsburgh's Carnegie Science Center displays a model of Fallingwater.[249]

Despite Fallingwater's renown, its design was seldom copied by other houses. At the time of Fallingwater's completion, modernist architects were turning away from organic designs, such as Fallingwater, in favor of more industrial designs, such as New York's Seagram Building.[242] Among the structures inspired by Fallingwater's design are a gas station in the Washington metropolitan area;[250] Paul Mayén's home in Garrison, New York;[251] and a house in North Burnaby, British Columbia.[252]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The younger Kaufmann spelled the "jr." in his name with lowercase letters.[6] For consistency, this article refers to him as Edgar Kaufmann Jr.
  2. ^ Some sources, such as the Centre Daily Times, cite ocher and Cherokee red as the only two colors used in the house.[14]
  3. ^ The depth of the plunge pool is variously cited as 48 inches (4 ft; 122 cm)[181] or 53 inches (130 cm).[72]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010.
  2. ^ "Fallingwater". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 24, 2008. Retrieved July 2, 2008.
  3. ^ "PHMC Historical Markers". Historical Marker Database. Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
  4. ^ "Fallingwater". Western Pennsylvania Conservancy. Retrieved September 7, 2021.
  5. ^ a b c Heyman, Stephen (July 27, 2016). "In Frank Lloyd Wright Country, Architecture and Apple Pie". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 9, 2024.
  6. ^ a b c Silman 2000, p. 88.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Wald, Matthew L. (September 2, 2001). "Rescuing a World-Famous but Fragile House". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  8. ^ a b c Sommers, Carl (June 23, 1991). "Q and A". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kraft, Randy (October 7, 1990). "Fallingwater lives up to its billing". The Morning Call. pp. F1, F4. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  10. ^ a b Maslin, Janet (September 29, 2003). "Books of the Times; Behind a Masterpiece, a Merchant and a Modernist". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 8, 2024.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Ecenbarger, William (August 30, 1992). "Waterfall Wonder: Architect Frank Lloyd Wright Refused to Build Fallingwater Where the Owners Wanted It. So – It Has Become an Architectural Marvel Around the World". Philadelphia Inquirer. pp. R1, R8. ProQuest 1839103842. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  12. ^ a b "The Shades of Summer". The Daily American. May 29, 1993. p. 20. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  13. ^ Stabert, Lee (February 27, 2017). "On the Way to...Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater". Keystone Edge. Retrieved December 7, 2024.
  14. ^ a b c d "An architectural masterpiece". Centre Daily Times. May 26, 2014. pp. QF13, QF15. Retrieved December 9, 2024.
  15. ^ a b c "Western Pa. offering Wright 'trinity' tour". Lancaster New Era. Associated Press. September 3, 2007. p. 10. Retrieved December 8, 2024.
  16. ^ Dvorak, Amy (May 20, 2019). "Frank Lloyd Wright's Mäntylä House Opens to Overnight Guests at Polymath Park". Dwell. Retrieved December 8, 2024.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p National Park Service 1974, p. 2.
  18. ^ Hoffmann 1977, p. 3.
  19. ^ a b c d e Fulford, Robert (May 26, 2015). "Take me to the river; Soaking up Frank Lloyd Wright's masterpiece". National Post. p. B.1. ProQuest 1683276736.
  20. ^ Hoffmann 1977, p. 5.
  21. ^ a b Hoffmann 1977, p. 7.
  22. ^ Hoffmann 1977, pp. 7–8.
  23. ^ Hoffmann 1977, pp. 8–9.
  24. ^ Van Trump, J.D. (1983). Life and Architecture in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh & Landmarks Foundation. pp. 115–116. ISBN 978-0-916670-08-5. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cass, Julia (September 10, 1995). "Falling for Fallingwater: the Much-photographed House That Frank Lloyd Wright Built is Even More Striking in Real Life. The Surrounding Countryside of Western Pennsylvania Has Good Looks, Too". Philadelphia Inquirer. pp. T1, T10. ProQuest 1841056679. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  26. ^ a b Hoffmann 1977, p. 10.
  27. ^ "The Kaufmann Family – Fallingwater". Fallingwater. Retrieved December 13, 2017.
  28. ^ Goldberger, Paul (August 1, 1989). "Edgar Kaufmann Jr., 79, Architecture Historian". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  29. ^ Waggoner 2011, pp. 174–177.
  30. ^ Waggoner 2011, p. 178.
  31. ^ a b c Hoffmann 1977, p. 11.
  32. ^ a b c Hoffmann 1977, p. 12.
  33. ^ a b Waggoner 2011, p. 181.
  34. ^ Silman 2000, pp. 88, 90.
  35. ^ McCarter, Robert (2001). "Wright, Frank Lloyd". In Boyer, Paul S. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to United States History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508209-8.
  36. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bell, Judith (October 29, 1995). "The Wright Way: at Fallingwater, Man-made Beauty Complements Nature in the Hills of Western Pennsylvania". Boston Globe. p. B1. ProQuest 3050102768.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Hartzok, Alanna (August 12, 1992). "Thousands tour landmark home". Public Opinion. pp. 25, 26. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  38. ^ a b c d Hoffmann 1977, p. 13.
  39. ^ Waggoner 2011, pp. 181–182.
  40. ^ a b Hoffmann 1977, p. 14.
  41. ^ a b c Toker 2007.
  42. ^ a b c d Hoffmann 1977, p. 15.
  43. ^ a b Lowry, Patricia (September 20, 2005). "70 Years Later, Wright Apprentice Recalls Witnessing the Genesis of Fallingwater". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. pp. D-1, D-2. ISSN 2692-6903. ProQuest 390745794. Retrieved December 8, 2024.
  44. ^ a b c d e f Silman 2000, p. 90.
  45. ^ a b c Hoffmann 1977, pp. 16–17.
  46. ^ a b c Hoffmann 1977, p. 26.
  47. ^ a b Tafel, Edgar (1979). Apprentice to genius: Years with Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-062815-1.
  48. ^ a b c Taylor, David (April 20, 2005). "Man of the House". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved December 8, 2024.
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Sources

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Further reading

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